Benefits of a Sport-specific Warm-up in Physical Education

Warm-ups Prior to Physical Activity
Participating in some form of a warm-up prior to engaging in physical activity is considered an acceptable and valid practice (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2001). Nonetheless, the topic has been debated among those in the sport and physical education field for a number of years. Some professionals believe warm-up is essential to physical activity, while others believe warm-up is not necessary. However, there are numerous physiological advantages associate with a warm-up that are difficult to refute. Three types of warm-ups frequently utilized are: passive, general and sport-specific.

In a passive warm-up individuals are not actively engaged in any form of physical activity to increase their core body temperature. Instead, heat packs, saunas, whirlpool baths and warm showers to increase metabolism are methods frequently used by sport medicine practitioners. Although convenient, the problem with this type of warm-up is that it dilates the blood vessels near the surface of the skin, thus drawing blood to superficial muscles and shunting blood away from the deep muscles that serve to benefit most.

A general warm-up consists of broader exercises such as calisthenics and aerobics, which increase core body temperature and prepare the body for physical activity. Although general and sport-specific warm-ups have similar physiological benefits, such as increasing enzymatic activity, core body temperature, and facilitating blood flow to the working muscles, a sport-specific warm-up is designed to focus on the actual muscle groups that will be called upon to perform a specific action. Thus, the action increases the speed of those enzymes required to perform muscle contraction and contributes to the rise in body temperature required to increase cortical stimulation down the alpha motor neurons of the muscles actually engaged in an activity (Astrand & Rodahl, 1977). The sport-specific warm-up not only increases neural activity., but assists in recruiting additional motor units and the speed of contraction/relaxation of each muscle fiber (Foss & Keteyian, 1998).

Warm-up and physical education
Clearly, there are benefits when one engages in either a general or sport specific warm up. However, the warm up should resemble the activity that is planned. Physical educators often begin lessons with a general warm-up, followed by a barrage of stretching activities. Although warming up prior to physical activity is generally a safe practice, the types of warm-up presently taking place in many physical education programs lacks purpose, and can also be time-consuming. The warm-up most frequently employed is, having students run laps as a prerequisite to their scheduled activity. The duration may be only five or six minutes, but when a class is only allowed 30 minutes, five minutes is equivalent to almost 20% of the allotted time. Many physical educators will agree that the warm-up time could be better spent participating in a warm-up specific to the actual sport that is being taught.

To give an example, when teaching a soccer lesson, an alternative to a general warm-up that is more beneficia1 and time efficient, is to begin class by having students pass the ball to partners working the inside of the foot, or receiving the ball working the outside of the foot as the students move around. Performing this type of warm-up activity results in an increase in core body temperature, and may reduce the risk of injury.

The primary purpose of physical education is to promote life-long physical activity. To accomplish this we must provide students with the opportunities to be successful in the gymnasium by giving them optimal time to improve motor skills. Incorporating sport-specific warm-ups provides them with the benefits of a general warm-up and enables the physical educator to add extra time to skill development and retention. Sport-specific warm-up activities may also increase student’s enjoyment and enhance the learning environment (McCannell, 2000). K-12 physical educators should attempt to incorporate innovative warm-up activities that comprise movements resembling the activity or sport their athletes will be performing.

Sport-specific warm-up strategies
The warm-up strategies described in this article implement sport-specific activities. Elementary level strategies are adapted from Carlisle and Cole (1996). Secondary level soccer and tennis strategies are adapted from Luxbacher (1996) and Brown (1995).

Soccer

Elementary level strategies
Follow the leader - The leader dribbles the ball in various directions with one or two students following behind. The leader moves in various directions, dribbling the ball. The other students do exactly what the leader does.

Shadow soccer - The leader (shadow) dribbles an imaginary ball in various directions. One or two students mimic what the leader is doing.

Volley drill - One student tosses a ball to a partner at varying heights and speeds, and volleys with foot, knee, or thigh. Modification of equipment for different skill levels is suggested.

Secondary level strategies
Keep away - Even numbered teams attempt to advance ball against one another from point A to point B. Modify space, distance, number of players, touches and balls.

Over and under - Partners stand on opposite sides of goals with no nets. Objective is to kick and receive ball either over or under a goal post, depending on skill level. Modify weakest or strongest foot, receiving area of body, stationary or moving ball, and height of goal.

Ball control - Groups of three stand in a line 10 to 15 feet apart. Student B passes to student A, who chips the ball over B to student C. Students follow their pass so that each of them continuously replace their position. Modify distance, foot and receiving area of body.

Basketball

Elementary level strategies
Dribble and run - Students dribble the ball several times around the perimeter of the gymnasium while class roll is being taken. Chair dribble - Students dribble around a chair as they practice to keep their bodies between the ball and the chair.

Partner pass - Students practice passing and catching with partners. They should begin at least eight feet apart and increase their speed and distance as skills increase.

Keep away - Two students practice chest and bounce passes while a third student attempts to intercept the ball.

Secondary level strategies
Square-V dribble - Students dribble in a stationary position with proper stance (knees bent and in the crouch position) from the right to left hand in a V-shape. Stance adjustments will allow dribbling to occur from front to back, side to side, between legs, behind back. Modify dribbling speed, visual focus, dribbling height and movement.

Creative dribble - When students have acquired basic skills, allow them to dribble creatively in self-space. Emphasize unique dribbling techniques in control of proper techniques.

Team hot shot - Students shoot the ball from poly spots showing various point values. Team members cooperate in rebound, pass and score team points.

Tennis

Elementary level strategies
Follow the rolling ball – Students place a tennis ball on the floor and gently tap it with their rackets, using the forehand grip. They follow the ball while they continue to tap it.

Ups - Using forehand grip, students place a tennis ball, high compression or high density foam ball on the head of their rackets. Students bounce the ball in the air and try to keep the ball going 30 times. They should try to work up to 100 times.

Secondary level strategies
Racket catch -Partners stand a designated distance apart and toss balls to both forehand and backhand sides.
They should try to catch the ball with racket strings before it bounces.

Drop and hit - Students practice tossing ball to self, hitting forehand, backhand and a variety of different shots.

Partner volley - Partners stand a designated distance apart and volley to forehand and backhand sides. Modify distance, lateral movement. Vary forehand/backhand sides and consecutive volleys.

Wall volley - Students practice volleying the ball against a wall, working on stance, technique, accuracy and force.

Volleyball

Elementary level strategies
Slide in ready position – Students line up facing net in the ready position. On instructor's command, they slide from side to side, as directed. Students should remain low to the ground and move quickly.

Bump and catch - Students toss ball in the air and make contact with the ball as it descends below the waist, with a bump pass. Bump and catch.

Low wall volley - Students stand three to five feet from wall and volley the ball frequently upward against the wall. Students should make contact with ball below the waist.

Secondary-level strategies
Pepper - Two students stand facing each other at a designated distance. They rally the ball between them in sequence bump, set and spike.

Continuous pass - Two lines of students stand opposite each other at designated distance. One student tosses the ball to the other, who then forearm or overhead passes back to the other. Each student follows their pass and goes to the back of the opposite line.

Figure eight - Place two nets side by side and assign four groups of students on each side of both nets. Students pass ball with either forearm or overhead pass to begin warm-up. Before they can pass ball to another group, three successive passes must be completed. Students pass ball from group to group in a figure eight pattern. Modify number of students per group, number of balls rallied, passing patterns and number of passes per team.

Summary
General warm-ups employed by many practitioners provide varying degrees of physiological readiness for activity. Warm-up activities should be efficient and effective. Efficiency aids instructional time by using warm-ups to address the lesson focus and facilitates and enhances learning. Effectiveness adjusts warm-ups to meet task-specific demands of the current activity. Careful organization, design, and implementation of sport-specific warm-ups can improve the teaching and learning environment (Brown, 1995; Luxbacher, 1996).

References
Astrand, P.O. & Rodahl, K. (1977). Textbook of work physiology. New York, NY; McGraw-Hill.

Brown, J. (1995). Tennis: Steps to success. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Carlisle, C.S. & Cole, S.L. (1996). Skillful movers (3rd. ed). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.

Foss, M.L. & Keteyian, S.J. (1998). Fox's physiological for exercise and sport (6th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

McCannell, D. (2000). Too many laps? Try this activity recipe: They'll be back for more! Strategies 14(2), 10-12.

McCardle, W.D., Katch, F.I., & Katch, V.L. (2001). Exercise physiology (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lipincott Williams & Wilkins.

Luxbacher, J.A. (1996). Specificity and variability of practice. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61 (2), 169-177.

Julian Reed (julian.reed@furman.edu) is an Assistant Professor for the Health and Exercise Science Department at Furman University, Greenville, SC.
Aaron Banks is an Assistant Professor for the Health and Exercise Science Department at Gustavus Adolphus College, St.
Peter, MN. Rock Brathwaite is an Assistant Professor for the Department of Health and Physical Education at Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.

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